Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are beneficial soil microorganisms that form symbiotic “fungus-root” associations with plants – including grapevines (Vitis vinifera). In this mutualistic partnership, the fungus (especially species like Rhizophagus intraradices , formerly Glomus intraradices ) colonizes vine roots and extends a network of microscopic hyphae into the soil. The grapevine supplies the fungus with sugars, and in return the AMF greatly enhances the plant’s ability to absorb hard-to-acquire nutrients (particularly phosphorus and micronutrients) and water. This relationship is widespread and natural in vineyards – most grapevines in the field host AMF in their roots, which act as a living extension of the root system. Research has shown that this symbiosis can significantly improve grapevine performance, from better vine growth and drought tolerance to higher yields and transplant success. Below, we summarize how AMF (with a focus on R. intraradices ) benefits grapevines and provide practical guidance for leveraging this fungus in vineyard management, particularly in North American growing conditions. Enhanced Nutrient Uptake Phosphorus (P) is a critical macronutrient for vines, yet in many soils P is present in forms that are not easily accessible to roots. R. intraradices  addresses this by sending out extremely fine hyphae that explore a much greater soil volume than roots alone, scavenging phosphate ions beyond the root depletion zone. The fungus effectively acts as a living pipeline for phosphorus: it transports P back to the root and delivers it to the plant at specialized root structures called arbuscules. Mycorrhizal grapevines often show dramatically higher P uptake and tissue P levels than non-mycorrhizal vines – for example, one experiment found foliar P content almost doubled  in AMF-inoculated grapevines compared to uninoculated controls (with associated increases in zinc, copper, and iron in the leaves as well). AMF hyphae also secrete enzymes and organic acids that help solubilize bound phosphates in the soil, further boosting nutrient availability. Notably, the benefits of AMF are greatest in low-P conditions: in nutrient-poor soils, a well-colonized vine can thrive where it might otherwise suffer P deficiency, sometimes reducing the vine’s external P fertilizer needs by an order of magnitude. (Conversely, in very high-P soils grapevines tend to down-regulate mycorrhizal colonization, as the plant doesn’t need the extra help.) In essence, R. intraradices  serves as a natural biofertilizer, greatly extending the grapevine’s nutrient foraging ability in the soil. Diagrammatic summary showing the impact of roots hairs or arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal hyphae on phosphorus uptake from the soil. Compare the upper and lower pairs of drawings to see how soil hyphae increase the size of phosphorus depletion zones in soil much more if plants lack highly branched roots with long root hairs. (Based on Brundrett et al. 1996) Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and Improved Water Uptake and Drought Resilience Beyond nutrients, R. intraradices  symbiosis also enhances the vine’s water uptake and drought tolerance. The fungal hyphal network can access water from soil pores too small for roots, effectively increasing the absorptive surface area for water. In drought-prone regions or during dry spells, mycorrhizal vines consistently maintain better water status than their non-mycorrhizal counterparts. For instance, in controlled experiments, grapevines inoculated with AMF showed significantly less negative leaf water potential (indicating less water stress), higher stomatal conductance, and higher photosynthesis rates under drought compared to uninoculated vines. Part of this improved drought resilience comes indirectly from better nutrition – AMF-inoculated vines had superior P status, which helps sustain root growth and stomatal function during water stress. Additionally, the fungus can alter root system architecture and deposit glomalin (a fungal glycoprotein) in soils, which improves soil structure and moisture retention around the roots. The overall outcome is that AMF-colonized grapevines are more “drought-avoidant,” sustaining higher tissue water content and physiological activity under water-limited conditions than vines without AMF. This trait is increasingly valuable as many wine regions face greater water scarcity or rely on deficit irrigation. Climate‑change context for AMF adoption  —A recent Chilean review highlights that Vitis vinifera  production is already constrained by declining irrigation water (an estimated 95 % of vineyards report shortages ) and mounting disease pressure as temperatures rise. The authors conclude that arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) can serve as a “biotechnological tool” to buffer both abiotic stress  (by improving water and P/N uptake and sustaining photosynthesis during drought) and biotic stress  (by triggering mycorrhiza‑induced resistance against trunk pathogens, nematodes and viruses). They also stress the importance of sourcing locally adapted AMF isolates  to protect native biodiversity and maximise symbiotic efficiency under regional soil–climate conditions. Key Benefits of AMF for Grapevine Health and Productivity By partnering with AMF, grapevines reap a range of growth and health benefits. Agronomic studies comparing mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal vines have documented the following improvements: Vigor and Nutrient Status:  Mycorrhizal vines develop more robust root systems and canopies thanks to improved nutrition. In one trial, R. intraradices -inoculated Cabernet Sauvignon vines had ~75% greater root dry weight than uninoculated vines, along with nearly double the leaf P concentration and 2–3× higher leaf nitrogen. These nutrient boosts translate into greener leaves (higher chlorophyll) and a more vigorous vine canopy. Better Transplant Success:  AMF inoculation helps young vines overcome transplant shock. In a study with micropropagated grapevine plantlets, those treated with R. intraradices  had almost double the survival rate after weaning compared to controls, and showed faster growth (greater height, biomass, leaf area) within the first two months. Establishing mycorrhizae early ensures the vine quickly regains nutrient and water uptake capacity in field conditions, leading to higher transplant success. Stress Tolerance (Drought, Nutrient, Disease):  Mycorrhizal symbiosis makes vines more resilient to environmental stresses. As noted, AMF-colonized vines maintain higher stomatal conductance and hydration under drought stress. In low-fertility soils, AMF help buffer nutrient deficiencies so vines are less likely to exhibit stress symptoms. There is even evidence that AMF can induce resistance to certain root pathogens – for example, vineyards with healthy AMF populations have shown lower incidence of “black foot” root disease, as the fungal symbiosis improves root health and defensive capacity. Overall, AMF acts as a biostimulant, helping vines tolerate drought, nutrient scarcity, and some diseases more effectively. Higher Yields and Fruit Quality:  Perhaps most importantly for growers, AMF can boost crop productivity. In field trials, grapevines inoculated with AMF produced significantly more grape clusters per vine and higher overall yield than non-inoculated vines. In one two-year study on Cabernet Sauvignon, mycorrhizal vines yielded about 25–30%  more fruit (by weight) compared to controls. Crucially, this yield increase comes without sacrificing fruit quality. Mycorrhizal vines in the same study also had higher concentrations of phenolic compounds in the grapes – including ~25% more skin anthocyanins – which enhance wine color, flavor, and antioxidant content. Other trials similarly report equal or improved grape quality (e.g. balanced sugars and acids, nutrient-rich must) in AMF-treated vines. The net effect is that a well-colonized vine can ripen a full crop with adequate sugar while also improving flavor and metabolite profiles, meaning growers get both more fruit and better fruit. Source: Arbuscular mycorrhiza symbiosis in viticulture: a review. AMF in Low-Phosphorus Vineyard Soils (North America) Many vineyard soils in North America have inherently low available phosphorus, making AMF symbiosis especially valuable. Regions such as parts of Washington and Oregon (with volcanic or weathered soils), coastal California, British Columbia’s Okanagan, and even certain Ontario vineyards often report low soil P levels or tightly bound P that vines can’t easily access. In these low-P scenarios, grapevines rely heavily on mycorrhizal fungi to meet their P needs. Vines in “low P” blocks can maintain adequate tissue P and show no deficiency symptoms largely because  of AMF foraging. Field observations back this up: for example, researchers in Oregon’s Willamette Valley noted that low soil P availability did not translate to low vine P status where AMF were present, underscoring that native mycorrhizae were helping vines get by. That said, AMF are not a panacea for extreme depletion – if soil P drops below critical thresholds (e.g. <5 ppm extractable P), even mycorrhizal vines may become P-deficient and struggle with stunted growth and poor fruit set. In such cases, growers should consider both inoculating with AMF and applying modest P inputs to build soil fertility. The key point is that R. intraradices  is most beneficial in P-impoverished soils – under those conditions, inoculation can dramatically improve vine P uptake and growth, whereas in high-P soils the vine gains little extra from the fungus. Relying on AMF for phosphorus not only supports vine nutrition but also has environmental benefits, potentially reducing the need for heavy P fertilizer applications (and thus lowering the risk of phosphate runoff into waterways). Application: Inoculation Timing and Methods When and How to Inoculate:   The optimal time to introduce R. intraradices  into a vineyard is at planting or during early root development. For new vineyard establishments, this means inoculating young vines (dormant rooted cuttings or potted nursery vines) at transplanting. Growers can apply granular or powdered AMF inoculum in the planting hole, dust it directly on the roots, or dip vine roots in an AMF spore slurry immediately before planting. These methods ensure the fungus comes into direct contact with roots and colonization begins promptly. Nursery propagation offers another opportunity: mixing AMF into potting media when raising grapevine cuttings will pre-colonize roots so that vines are mycorrhizal by the time they go into the field. This approach has been shown to boost subsequent field performance of vines by jump-starting the symbiosis. If planting into fumigated or sterilized soil (for instance, replanting an old vineyard site that was treated for nematodes), inoculation at planting is critical  – otherwise the soil has virtually no beneficial fungi and vines will remain non-mycorrhizal for an extended period. Field trials in Oregon have demonstrated that grapevines in fumigated plots had negligible AMF colonization unless they were deliberately inoculated at planting. In contrast, planting into older vineyard soil with an intact native AMF community is more forgiving, as indigenous fungi will often colonize new vines on their own (though supplementing with a robust inoculant can still enhance colonization levels and early growth). In established vineyards:  Introducing AMF after vines are already planted is more challenging, but there are methods to do so. One approach is to apply granular inoculum in furrows or holes near the vine root zone (to get spores closer to roots). Another strategy is injecting liquid mycorrhizal inoculum through drip irrigation systems, which can distribute the propagules to the root vicinity. Additionally, using mycorrhizal cover crops or companion plants in the vine rows can help spread AMF to grape roots over time. Many grasses and legumes commonly used as cover crops are good hosts for AMF; planting these in row middles or undervine can act as a “living reservoir” of mycorrhiza that gradually transfer to the vines. (Note: avoid non-mycorrhizal covers like mustards in areas where you want to promote AMF, as Brassica species do not host AMF and can even suppress them.) While post-planting inoculation is possible, it may take longer to see effects than early-life colonization, and success can be variable. Thus, integrating AMF at the start of a vineyard’s life is ideal for maximum benefit. Compatibility with Other Inputs and Sustainable Practices One advantage of R. intraradices  is that it is generally compatible with typical vineyard inputs and sustainable farming practices. It thrives alongside organic matter additions like compost or mulches, which improve soil structure and provide resources for the fungi. Moderate use of fertilizers is also fine – growers often continue normal nitrogen and potassium fertilization, but can reduce phosphorus inputs when AMF are active, since the fungi make soil P more available (allowing cost savings and avoiding nutrient imbalances). It is recommended to avoid excessive  P fertilization, as high soil P will chemically satisfy the vine and actually suppress mycorrhizal colonization, negating the benefits. Similarly, be cautious with certain agricultural chemicals: soil fumigants or fungicides with broad antifungal activity can harm AMF propagules. If a fungicide treatment is needed, using primarily foliar fungicides or timing soil-directed fungicides when AMF are less active can mitigate negative impacts. Always check product labels for AMF safety if planning a concurrent inoculation. Combining with biostimulants:   AMF inoculation can be part of a broader biofertility program in the vineyard. Researchers have found synergies between AMF and other beneficial microbes. For example, the beneficial rhizobacterium Bacillus subtilis  is often applied in vineyards for biocontrol and growth promotion, and it pairs well with R. intraradices . Co-inoculating grapevines with AMF plus B. subtilis  has shown significantly greater plant growth than using either alone – the AMF boosts nutrient and water uptake while the bacterium produces growth-stimulating compounds and helps suppress soil pathogens, together resulting in healthier, more vigorous vines. Other inoculant fungi like Trichoderma  can also coexist with AMF, targeting different aspects of plant health. The key is that a diverse, microbially rich soil tends to support robust AMF function rather than hinder it. Just take care to avoid highly fungicidal treatments around the same time as applying AMF, as noted above, so you don’t inadvertently kill your beneficial fungi. Best practices to support AMF:  Once you’ve established mycorrhizal fungi in your vineyard, certain practices will help them flourish. Keeping some form of cover crop or vegetation year-round provides continuous host roots for the fungi, preventing starvation during fallow periods. Minimizing deep or frequent tillage is important, as intensive soil disturbance can break the hyphal networks and reduce AMF effectiveness (switching to no-till or shallow cultivation systems is more AMF-friendly). Many growers using AMF also adopt organic or sustainable viticulture methods that naturally align with nurturing soil biology – for instance, using compost, reducing synthetic fertilizers, and employing deficit irrigation, which can even stimulate greater AMF colonization in vines. With proper management, inoculated vines can achieve over 50% of fine roots colonized by AMF within a year or two. Growers should essentially treat the mycorrhiza as an extension of the vine’s own roots: feed it, protect it, and it will reward you  with ongoing improvements in vine health and productivity. In practical terms, leveraging R. intraradices  in vineyards offers a science-backed route to stronger, more resilient grapevines that produce high-quality fruit sustainably – a win-win for both vineyard performance and soil ecosystem health. References: Trouvelot, S., Bonneau, L., Redecker, D., van Tuinen, D., Adrian, M., & Wipf, D.  (2015). Arbuscular mycorrhiza symbiosis in viticulture: a review . Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 35 , 1449‑1467. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593‑015‑0329‑7   link.springer.com Krishna, H., Singh, S.K., Minakshi, G., Patel, V.B., Khawale, R.N., Deshmukh, P.S., & Jindal, P.C.  (2006). Arbuscular‑Mycorrhizal Fungi Alleviate Transplantation Shock in Micro‑propagated Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) . Journal of Horticultural Science & Biotechnology, 81(2) , 259‑263. https://doi.org/10.1080/14620316.2006.11512059   researchgate.net Schreiner, R.P., Tarara, J.M., & Smithyman, R.P.  (2007). Deficit irrigation promotes arbuscular colonization of fine roots by mycorrhizal fungi in grapevines (Vitis vinifera L.) in an arid climate . Mycorrhiza, 17(7) , 551‑562. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00572‑007‑0128‑3   pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov Schreiner, R.P., & Mihara, K.L.  (2009). The diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi amplified from grapevine roots (Vitis vinifera L.) in Oregon vineyards is seasonally stable and influenced by soil and vine age . Mycologia, 101(5) , 599‑611. https://doi.org/10.3852/08‑169   pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov Massa, N., Bona, E., Novello, G., et al.  (2020). AMF communities associated to Vitis vinifera in an Italian vineyard subjected to integrated pest management at two different phenological stages . Scientific Reports, 10 , 9197. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598‑020‑66067‑w   pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov Fattahi, M., Nasrollahpourmoghadam, S., & Mohammadkhani, A.  (2021). Comparison of effectiveness of arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi (AMF) on Vitis vinifera under low‑irrigation conditions . Agricultural Science Digest, 41(Special Issue) , 119‑128. https://doi.org/10.18805/ag.D‑253   arccjournals.com Aguilera, P., Ortiz, N., Becerra, N.,  et al.   (2022). Application of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi in Vineyards: Water and Biotic Stress Under a Climate Change Scenario – New Challenge for Chilean Grapevine Crop . Frontiers in Microbiology, 13 , 826571. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.826571

Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis: mechanisms of action Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti)  is a Gram-positive, spore-forming bacterium well-known for producing toxins that target the larvae of mosquitoes, black flies, and other related pests. It has gained widespread use as a biological control agent due to its high specificity for insect larvae and its safety for non-target organisms, including humans and wildlife. This makes Bti an ideal candidate for biological pest management in ecologically sensitive environments. Bti produces several insecticidal crystalline proteins (ICPs) , primarily Cry4A, Cry4B, Cry11A , and Cyt1A , which are toxic when ingested by insect larvae. Once inside the insect’s midgut, these toxins are activated by the alkaline environment, where they bind to receptors on the gut epithelial cells. This interaction forms pores in the gut lining, leading to cell lysis and the eventual death of the larvae through septicemia or starvation. Bacillus thuringiensis cell structure Due to this precise mechanism, Bti is highly effective against mosquito and black fly larvae without harming beneficial insects, mammals, or birds . Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis (Bti)  is highly effective against a specific group of insects, particularly those in their larval stage. Here is a list of the primary insect groups that Bti can target: 1. Mosquitoes (Family: Culicidae ) Aedes spp.  (e.g., Aedes aegypti , Aedes albopictus ), which transmit diseases like dengue fever, Zika virus, and chikungunya. Anopheles spp. , which are vectors for malaria. Culex spp. , which can carry West Nile virus and filarial parasites. 2. Black Flies (Family: Simuliidae ) Simulium spp. , known for their nuisance and ability to transmit diseases such as river blindness (onchocerciasis) in humans and various diseases in animals. 3. Fungus Gnats (Family: Sciaridae ) Bradysia spp. , commonly found in greenhouse environments, causing damage to plant roots. 4. Non-Biting Midges (Family: Chironomidae ) Chironomus spp. , though they do not bite, their large populations can be a nuisance in urban areas. 5. Other Aquatic Diptera Various species of aquatic flies that can be controlled by Bti due to their similar larval biology to mosquitoes and black flies. While Bti  is highly selective in targeting these insect groups, it does not affect non-target organisms like beneficial insects (e.g., pollinators), mammals, birds, or aquatic organisms. This makes it a preferred option for environmentally safe biological control. Key Uses and Applications 1. Biological Control of Mosquitoes Bti is primarily utilized as a biolarvicide  to control mosquito populations, particularly species that transmit harmful diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, and Zika virus. It is applied to mosquito breeding sites, including standing water in marshes, ponds, and sewage systems, where larvae thrive. The ability of Bti to specifically target mosquito larvae while being harmless to other aquatic organisms makes it an environmentally safe choice for controlling vector-borne diseases. 2. Sequential Fermentation with Sewage Sludge One interesting application involves the use of sewage sludge  in Bti production, in conjunction with Bacillus sphaericus . This sequential fermentation process helps convert waste materials into an effective biolarvicide, reducing costs and providing an environmentally sustainable method of producing Bti. Additionally, Bacillus sphaericus  is often combined with Bti to enhance effectiveness against various mosquito species, further minimizing the chance of resistance development. 3. Biological Control of Black Flies Bti is also highly effective in controlling black fly populations , which are notorious for spreading diseases among humans and livestock. The application of Bti to black fly breeding grounds (usually fast-moving rivers and streams) provides an eco-friendly solution to managing this pest. Like mosquitoes, black flies ingest the Bti toxins, leading to their death at the larval stage, reducing adult populations and preventing further disease transmission. 4. Agricultural Pest Control Beyond mosquito and black fly control, Bti has shown promise in agricultural pest management , particularly against pests like beetles that cause crop damage. Due to its specific targeting of pests, Bti serves as an attractive alternative to chemical pesticides, which can harm beneficial insects, pollinators, and the surrounding environment. 5. Bioremediation Potential Though less explored, Bti has potential applications in bioremediation . Its ability to control pests that contribute to water contamination can help in the restoration of polluted aquatic ecosystems. The reduction in pest populations through Bti applications can mitigate the spread of pathogens and pollutants, enhancing the health of water bodies. Advantages of Using Bti 1. Environmental Safety Bti's high specificity for certain insect larvae, coupled with its non-toxicity to humans, animals, and non-target organisms, makes it an ideal biological control agent. Its use minimizes collateral damage to beneficial species, including pollinators and aquatic organisms. 2. Resistance Management While the threat of pest resistance to biological agents exists, combining Bti with other larvicidal agents, such as Bacillus sphaericus , can reduce the risk of resistance development. This approach prolongs the effectiveness of Bti in controlling mosquito populations over time. 3. Cost-Effective Production Utilizing sewage sludge and other waste products in the fermentation of Bti presents a cost-effective and sustainable production method. This approach reduces production costs while simultaneously managing waste, creating a dual benefit for environmental management . 4. Potential for Synergistic Use Research shows that combining Bti with certain chemical agents, such as sulfamethoxazole , can enhance its larvicidal efficacy. Such combinations could prove beneficial in areas where mosquito populations have developed resistance to traditional biopesticides. Conclusion Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis (Bti)  is a powerful biological control agent used primarily for the management of mosquito and black fly populations . Its specificity for insect larvae, combined with its safety for non-target organisms, makes it a valuable tool in sustainable pest management. Additionally, its potential in agricultural pest control, bioremediation, and eco-friendly production methods highlights Bti's versatility. As research continues, Bti may find even broader applications in integrated pest management (IPM) strategies, contributing to long-term ecological sustainability. If you would like to purchase Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis you can do it here . References: Schnepf, E., et al. (1998). Bacillus thuringiensis and its pesticidal proteins . Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. , 62(3), 775-806. Charles, J. F., Nielsen-LeRoux, C., & Delecluse, A. (1996). Bacillus sphaericus toxins: Molecular biology and mode of action . Annu. Rev. Entomol. , 41, 451-472. Pree, D. J., & Daly, J. C. (1996). Toxicity of Mixtures of Bacillus thuringiensis with Endosulfan and Other Insecticides to the Cotton Boll Worm Helicoverpa armigera . Pestic. Sci. , 48, 199-204. Tanapongpipat, S., et al. (2003). Stable integration and expression of mosquito-larvicidal genes from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis and Bacillus sphaericus into the chromosome of Enterobacter amnigenus: A potential breakthrough in mosquito biocontrol . FEMS Microbiol. Lett. , 221(2), 243-248. Ohio State University Blog

Introduction The rapid increase in global population and industrial activities has led to a significant rise in organic waste generation, creating considerable environmental and public health challenges. Improperly managed organic waste serves as a major source of pollutants, including methane (CH₄) and other greenhouse gases (GHGs), which substantially contribute to climate change. Additionally, the leaching of contaminants into soil and water systems disrupt ecosystems and pose risks to human health. Conventional waste management strategies, such as landfilling and incineration, are increasingly recognized as unsustainable due to their environmental impact, including air and water pollution and inefficient resource utilization. In contrast, emerging biotechnological approaches provide sustainable solutions for waste valorization. Utilizing microbial metabolism, processes like anaerobic digestion (AD) and dark fermentation convert organic waste into bioenergy (e.g., biogas and biohydrogen) while simultaneously reducing waste volume. These bioprocesses not only optimize waste degradation but also contribute to circular economy principles by converting waste into valuable by-products, such as biofertilizers and precursors for bioplastics. This review examines recent advancements in biotechnological methods for transforming organic waste into renewable energy, highlighting their potential to address the dual challenges of waste management and sustainable energy production. Anaerobic Digestion: A Key Technology in Waste Management Anaerobic digestion is a biological process that converts organic waste into biogas, a mixture primarily composed of methane (CH₄) and carbon dioxide (CO₂)​. The process involves four main stages: Hydrolysis : Complex organic matter is broken down into simpler soluble molecules like sugars and amino acids. Acidogenesis : These simpler molecules are converted into volatile fatty acids (VFAs). Acetogenesis : VFAs are further processed into acetic acid, hydrogen, and CO₂. Methanogenesis : Finally, methanogenic archaea convert these products into methane and CO₂​. The efficiency of anaerobic digestion can be enhanced by co-digestion, where multiple types of waste are processed together. For instance, co-digesting tannery wastewater with dairy waste has been shown to improve biogas yield and methane content due to the complementary nutrient profiles of these waste streams​. Benefits of Anaerobic Digestion Energy Production : Biogas can be used to generate electricity, heat, or even upgraded to biomethane for use as a vehicle fuel​. Waste Reduction : The process significantly reduces the volume of waste, which is critical for industries with high organic waste outputs such as agriculture, food processing, and wastewater treatment​. Nutrient Recovery : The digestate, a by-product of AD, can be used as a biofertilizer, rich in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, thus closing the nutrient loop. Biohydrogen Production: Novel Sustainable Waste Management process. Hydrogen, a clean fuel with zero carbon emissions, is gaining attention as a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels. Among various methods of hydrogen production, biohydrogen generated through anaerobic fermentation is particularly promising due to its low environmental impact​.  This process, known as dark fermentation, involves the microbial breakdown of carbohydrate-rich substrates in the absence of light, producing hydrogen and organic acids. Enhanced Biohydrogen Production : Research indicates that adding residual glycerol from biodiesel production to cassava wastewater can significantly boost hydrogen yield during anaerobic digestion​. The optimal conditions for maximizing hydrogen production include a balanced substrate-to-biomass ratio, temperature control, and proper inoculation with hydrogen-producing bacteria. Key Microbes : Hydrogen production is driven by specific anaerobic bacteria, including species from the genera Clostridium , Bacillus , and Enterobacter ​. Operational Parameters : Studies have shown that maintaining a pH of around 5.5 to 6.0 and a temperature of 35-38°C optimizes biohydrogen yields​. Microbial Plastic Degradation: Addressing the Plastic Pollution Crisis The accumulation of plastics in the environment is a major challenge due to their resistance to degradation. Traditional recycling methods are limited, especially for non-PET plastics like polyethylene and polystyrene​. Recent biotechnological advances focus on using microbial enzymes, such as PETase and laccases, to break down plastics into biodegradable components. Biotechnological Strategies : Enzymatic Degradation : Specific enzymes target polymer bonds, converting plastics into monomers that can be further utilized by microbes​. CRISPR and Synthetic Biology : Genetic engineering techniques, including CRISPR, are being explored to enhance the efficiency of microbial strains in breaking down plastics and converting them into valuable biochemicals​. Plastic degradation under aerobic conditions The Role of Biogas and Biohydrogen in the Circular Economy Integrating biotechnological solutions into waste management systems aligns with the principles of the circular economy. By converting waste into bioenergy, industries can reduce their carbon footprint, lower waste management costs, and contribute to energy sustainability​. Key Applications : Decentralized Waste Management : Small-scale anaerobic digesters can be implemented in communities to process organic waste, generating biogas for local energy needs while reducing landfill dependence​. Industrial Waste Valorization : Food processing industries, breweries, and dairy farms can adopt biohydrogen and biogas production to manage their organic waste streams effectively. Various methods of obtaining biogas and biohydrogen via fermentatio Conclusion The transition to sustainable waste management requires innovative approaches that integrate biotechnological advancements. Technologies like anaerobic digestion and biohydrogen production not only offer solutions to waste management but also pave the way for sustainable energy production. By embracing these technologies, industries can play a pivotal role in achieving environmental sustainability and reducing reliance on fossil fuels​. Moving forward, continued research and investment in optimizing microbial processes and scaling up these technologies will be crucial to realizing their full potential. The integration of biotechnology into waste management systems is not just an opportunity but a necessity for a sustainable future. At IndoGulf BioAg we are dedicated to contributing to global efforts to aid in and develop new sustainable strategies for agriculture , environmental remediation , water treatment , and medical industry by using microorganisms, fungi, enzymes and nano-technology Reach out to us with your needs and our team will ensure to deliver optimal solutions tailored personally for you. References: González Henao, S., & Ghneim-Herrera, T. (2021). Metals in soils: Remediation strategies based on bacteria and fungi. Environmental Science and Pollution Research . Retrieved from consensus.app Zhang, L., Rengel, Z., Meney, K., & Tu, C. (2018). Mycorrhizal fungi in improving grain yields: A meta-analysis of field studies. Agronomy Journal . Tufail, M., Shahzad, R., & Sohail, M. (2022). Endophytic bacteria perform better than fungi in improving plant growth under drought stress. Journal of Plant Interactions . Zhao, Y., Ji, X. L., Shen, T., Tang, W. T., & Li, S. S. (2020). The role of endophytic Seimatosporium sp. in enhancing host plant powdery mildew resistance. Plant Soil . Tran, H. Q., Le, T. N., & Dao, T. V. (2021). Aerobic composting for the bioremediation of petroleum-contaminated soil. Journal of Hazardous Materials . Indogulf BioAg Microbial Strains for Agriculture 2022. Indogulf BioAg. (2022). IGBA Environmental Species

Hemp harvesting on the banks of Rhine river, 1860s Cannabis ( Cannabis sativa ) has a documented history of cultivation that extends over thousands of years, with evidence dating back to at least the Neolithic era. Initially domesticated in Eastern Asia, cannabis became a significant part of human culture due to its adaptability and multitude of uses, including fiber production, medicinal applications, and food sources.  The spread of cannabis across continents was influenced by human migrations and trade, integrating deeply with agricultural practices across Europe, Asia, and Africa. Throughout its long history, cannabis has co-evolved with the natural environment, forming mutually beneficial relationships with organisms such as mycorrhizal fungi and Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR).  Hemp plant illustration from a botanical atlas, 19th century Europe Co-Evolution with Mycorrhizal Fungi   One of the most remarkable aspects of cannabis’s evolutionary history is its symbiosis with mycorrhizal fungi. These fungi are symbiotic with most terrestrial plants, forming associations that extend root networks and enhance the plant's ability to access water and essential nutrients in exchange for carbohydrates produced by plants.   Rhizophagus irregularis ( Glomus intraradices) a species of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), is known to form extensive hyphal networks that connect with cannabis roots, facilitating increased absorption of phosphorus and other minerals that are often limited in soil. Pseudomonas spp. in the rhizosphere and its' influence for cannabis plant growth The process by which AMF enhances nutrient uptake involves the fungi penetrating the root cells and forming arbuscules—structures that facilitate the exchange of nutrients between the plant and the fungus. The plant supplies the fungi with carbon derived from photosynthesis, while the fungi provide the plant with improved access to phosphorus, nitrogen, and micronutrients. This relationship is particularly valuable in cannabis cultivation, where phosphorus is essential for robust growth and flowering. Studies have shown that cannabis plants with AMF associations exhibit better root mass, increased growth rates, and enhanced resilience to environmental stressors​. The Role of Trichoderma and Beneficial Bacteria   Trichoderma harzianum in cannabis rhizosphere In addition to mycorrhizal fungi, Trichoderma harzianum  plays an integral role in promoting cannabis health. This beneficial fungus colonises the rhizosphere, producing growth hormones such as indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), which stimulate root branching and elongation. The result is a more extensive root system capable of greater nutrient and water absorption. Furthermore, Trichoderma  acts as a natural biocontrol agent by releasing lytic enzymes and secondary metabolites that deter soil-borne pathogens, thereby reducing disease incidence and promoting overall plant vitality. Benefits of a healthy and diverse rhizosphere Beneficial bacteria, particularly strains of Bacillus  and Lactobacillus , add another layer of support to cannabis cultivation: Nutrient Solubilization :  Bacillus subtilis  and related strains enhance the availability of phosphorus and potassium in the soil, making these nutrients more accessible to the plant. This solubilization process is essential for cannabis, which requires ample nutrients for vigorous growth and development. Pathogen Suppression :  Bacillus  spp. produce bioactive lipopeptides and enzymes that protect the plant from fungal pathogens, reinforcing the plant’s ability to withstand biotic stress. Soil Fertility Enhancement :   Lactobacillus  spp., such as L. casei  and L. plantarum , contribute to the breakdown of organic matter and nutrient cycling, enriching soil fertility and ensuring that cannabis plants have a consistent supply of essential nutrients throughout their growth cycle​. Historical and Ecological Significance   Cannabis’s extensive use throughout history also intersected with traditional agricultural practices that leveraged the plant’s resilience and diverse applications. For example, hemp retting, a process used to extract fibers from cannabis stems by submerging them in water, has been practiced for centuries. Historical sediment analyses in places like the French Massif Central have revealed the presence of cannabinol (CBN), a phytocannabinoid metabolite, in ancient sediments. This finding underscores the deep connection between human activity and cannabis cultivation over centuries​. Retting, although beneficial for producing high-quality fibers, has historically posed environmental challenges by affecting water quality. This highlights the importance of modern, sustainable practices that maintain productivity while protecting natural resources. The use of microbial inoculants such as AMF , Trichoderma , and beneficial bacteria supports sustainable agricultural systems by enhancing soil health, reducing dependency on chemical fertilisers, and improving carbon capture. Modern Applications: The Role of Microbial Products   The co-evolution of cannabis with beneficial microbes provides a strong foundation for modern microbial technologies aimed at sustainable cultivation. Our Super Microbes brand, with products like RootX and BoostX incorporates these naturally occurring relationships backed by science and research : RootX :  Integrates Glomus intraradices , Trichoderma harzianum , and 13 species of Bacillus  to extend root systems, optimize nutrient absorption, and offer natural protection against pathogens. This synergy helps cannabis plants achieve vigorous growth and enhanced yield. BoostX :  Focuses on enriching the microbial environment with multiple strains of Bacillus , Lactobacillus , Rhodopseudomonas palustris , and Saccharomyces cerevisiae . These components increase nutrient bioavailability, promote robust flowering and bud formation, and contribute to sustained soil health. Environmental Benefits and Carbon Sequestration   The integration of mycorrhizal fungi and beneficial bacteria into cannabis cultivation also plays a significant role in climate resilience. Mycorrhizal networks contribute to soil carbon storage by stabilizing organic matter and forming stable carbon pools as their structures decompose. The allocation of 5-20% of carbon captured by plants to support mycorrhizal fungi showcases their vital role in the carbon cycle. Estimates indicate that mycorrhizal fungi contribute to sequestering approximately 13 Gt of CO2e annually, a significant portion of the global carbon output​.. Conclusion   The symbiosis between cannabis and organisms like mycorrhizal fungi and beneficial bacteria is just a small example of nature's complexity and adaptability. Understanding and harnessing these relationships not only improve plant health and yield but also foster sustainable agricultural practices that contribute to soil health and carbon capture. The continued study and application of these beneficial interactions can support ecological restoration efforts and bolster climate-positive outcomes, paving the way for a more resilient and sustainable agricultural future. References: McPartland, J. M., & Guy, G. W. (2004). The evolution of cannabis and co-evolution with the human species. Clarke, R. C., & Merlin, M. D. (2013). Cannabis: Evolution and Ethnobotany . University of California Press. Lavrieux, M., et al. (2013). Sedimentary cannabinol tracks the history of hemp retting in Lake Aydat, France. Geology , 41(7), 1-4. Mercuri, A. M., et al. (2002). The identification and analysis of Cannabis pollen in archaeological and natural environments. Journal of Archaeological Science . Rull, V., et al. (2022). Historical biogeography of Cannabis  in the Iberian Peninsula: Palynological evidence. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany . Duvall, C. S. (2014). The African Roots of Marijuana . Duke University Press. Small, E. (2015). Cannabis: A Complete Guide . CRC Press. Effect of Colonization of Trichoderma harzianum on Growth Development and CBD Content of Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Article in Microorganisms · March 2021 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9030518   Trichoderma and its role in biological control of plant fungal and nematode disease  Xin Yao 1†, Hailin Guo 2†, Kaixuan Zhang 3†, Mengyu Zhao 1, Jingjun Ruan 1* and Jie Chen 4*  1 College of Agronomy, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China, 2 Science and Technology Innovation Development Center of Bijie City, Bijie, China, 3 Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Science, Beijing, China, 4 School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China

Mycorrhizal fungi, symbiotic partners of most terrestrial plants, play a crucial role in global carbon cycling. By forming intricate relationships with plant roots, these fungi facilitate the transfer and storage of carbon in soil ecosystems. This text explores the mechanisms by which mycorrhizal fungi contribute to carbon sequestration, their ecological importance, and the potential implications for climate change mitigation. Carbon Fixation in Plants Carbon fixation is a critical process in photosynthesis, where plants convert atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) into organic compounds. This process is fundamental to the growth of plants and the sustenance of life on Earth. It primarily occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells, utilizing light energy to drive the conversion of CO2 and water into glucose and oxygen. The most well-known pathway for carbon fixation is the Calvin Cycle, which takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts. The cycle begins when CO2 is attached to a five-carbon sugar, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP), by the enzyme RuBisCO. This reaction produces a six-carbon compound that immediately splits into two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA). These molecules undergo a series of reactions using energy from ATP and NADPH, generated in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis, to form glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). G3P is then used to synthesize glucose and other carbohydrates, which serve as energy sources and structural components for the plant. Carbon fixation is not only vital for plant growth but also for the global carbon cycle. Through photosynthesis, plants act as carbon sinks, sequestering atmospheric CO2 and mitigating the effects of climate change. Additionally, the organic compounds produced via carbon fixation form the base of the food chain, supporting a wide range of organisms, from herbivores to apex predators. In summary, carbon fixation in plants is an essential biochemical process that sustains life on Earth by converting CO2 into usable organic matter, thereby supporting plant growth and contributing to the global carbon balance. Plants allocate enough carbon to underground mycorrhizal fungi equivalent to roughly one-third of carbon emitted yearly by fossil fuels Peer-Reviewed Publication CELL PRESS ”  Carbon Flow to Mycorrhizal Mycelia Mycorrhizal fungi receive a significant portion of carbon fixed by plants through photosynthesis. Estimates suggest that plants allocate between 5-20% of their total carbon uptake to these fungi. This carbon is used to build and maintain extensive mycelial networks, which can transport and store carbon in the soil​​. Mechanisms of Carbon Storage Mycorrhizal fungi contribute to soil carbon storage through several mechanisms. First, they enhance the formation of soil aggregates by exuding compounds such as glomalin, which binds soil particles together, thereby stabilizing soil organic matter. Additionally, the mycelial networks themselves become part of the soil organic matter when they die and decompose, forming a stable carbon pool known as fungal necromass​​. VIDEO: FLOWS OF FLUORESCENTLY LABELED CARBON INSIDE MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI CREDIT: CARGILL & OYARTE-GALVEZ (AMOLF) Ecological Importance Enhancing Soil Health Mycorrhizal fungi improve soil structure and fertility, which in turn enhances plant growth and resilience. The hyphal networks increase the surface area for nutrient exchange, allowing plants to access nutrients that are otherwise unavailable. This is particularly important in nutrient-poor soils, where mycorrhizal fungi can significantly boost plant productivity and health​​. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Stability Mycorrhizal associations support plant diversity and ecosystem stability. By facilitating nutrient uptake, these fungi help a wide variety of plant species to thrive, thereby maintaining biodiversity. Furthermore, the carbon storage function of mycorrhizal fungi contributes to the overall stability and resilience of ecosystems, making them less susceptible to disturbances such as climate change​​. Applications in Climate Change Mitigation Carbon Sequestration Potential The global contribution of mycorrhizal fungi to carbon sequestration is substantial. Studies estimate that these fungi are responsible for sequestering approximately  13 Gt of CO2e per year, which is equivalent to about 36% of annual CO2 emissions from fossil fuels. This highlights the potential of mycorrhizal fungi in mitigating climate change through enhanced carbon sequestration​​. Sustainable Agriculture In agriculture, the use of mycorrhizal fungi can reduce the need for chemical fertilizers and pesticides, promoting more sustainable farming practices. By improving nutrient uptake and soil health, mycorrhizal fungi help to increase crop yields and quality, particularly in low-fertility soils. This can lead to a reduction in the environmental impact of agriculture and support global food security​​. Conclusion Mycorrhizal fungi are vital components of terrestrial ecosystems, playing a key role in carbon sequestration and soil health. Their symbiotic relationships with plants have profound implications for global carbon cycling and climate change mitigation. By enhancing our understanding and application of these fungi, we can unlock their full potential to support sustainable agriculture and environmental restoration, contributing to a more sustainable future. References:  Will fungi solve the carbon dilemma? ( S. Emilia Hannula a,c , Elly Morri¨en a,b,* a Department of Terrestrial Ecology, Netherlands Institute of Ecology, PO Box 50, 6700 AB Wageningen, the Netherlands b Department of Ecosystem and Landscape Dynamics, Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED-ELD), University of Amsterdam, P.O. Box 94240, 1090 GE Amsterdam, the Netherlands c Department of Environmental Biology, Institute of Environment       Carbon allocation in mycelia of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi during colonisation of plant seedlings Aiko Nakano-Hylander, Pa ̊ l Axel Olsson ( Department of Ecology, Lund University, Ecology Building, SE-223 62 Lund, Sweden )

At IndoGulf BioAg, we specialize in research and production of hundreds various bacterial species for wide range of applications. Pseudomonas strains possess immense potential to aid modern agriculture in reducing chemical inputs into the soil and restoring a healthy soil microbiome. Renowned for their versatility, several Pseudomonas strains offer significant advantages in promoting plant growth, combating pathogens, and enhancing soil health. Auxin Production by Pseudomonas strains Auxin, particularly indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), is crucial for regulating plant growth. Many Pseudomonas strains, such as Pseudomonas fluorescens , can produce IAA, stimulating root hair formation and lateral root development, which results in robust root systems​. The level of IAA produced can either stimulate or inhibit root growth, influenced by the balance between plant and bacterial synthesis. Strategic selection of strains ensures the optimisation of IAA production, enhancing root development without adverse effects​. Cytokinins and Gibberellins: Supporting Shoot Growth and Stress Tolerance Pseudomonas species also produce other phytohormones like cytokinins and gibberellins, which are vital for shoot growth and stress resilience​. Cytokinins aid in cell division, chlorophyll synthesis, and delaying leaf senescence, particularly under water stress​. Gibberellins, such as those produced by Pseudomonas putida , enhance stem elongation and seed germination​. ( article on P.Putida here ) applications of P.Putida These properties facilitate faster plant growth and improved drought resistance, promoting resilience in harsh environments​. ACC Deaminase: Alleviating Plant Stress Under stress, plants produce ethylene, which can restrict growth. Pseudomonas strains with ACC deaminase activity break down the ethylene precursor 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC), reducing ethylene levels and mitigating its growth-inhibitory effects​. Studies demonstrate that plants inoculated with such strains show enhanced biomass and stress tolerance​. Phosphate Solubilization Phosphorus, often present in insoluble forms in soil, is essential for plant nutrition. Pseudomonas strains that solubilize phosphate through the release of organic acids like gluconate and citrate improve phosphorus availability​. This enhancement in nutrient uptake supp orts stronger plant growth and yields, even in nutrient-poor soils​. Biocontrol: Natural Defense Against Pathogens One remarkable attribute of Pseudomonas species is their ability to act as biocontrol agents. Strains like Pseudomonas fluorescens  produce antifungal compounds such as 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol (DAPG), which suppress pathogens like Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarium spp.​ This natural suppression reduces reliance on chemical pesticides, contributing to more sustainable agricultural practices. Pseudomonas species are versatile bacteria with impactful roles in enzyme production, bioremediation, and sustainable agriculture. Acting as plant growth promoters and biocontrol agents, they offer eco-friendly alternatives to chemical inputs while supporting environmental management through soil remediation. Explore how Pseudomonas species can benefit your projects. Contact us today  to harness their potential in biotechnology and sustainable solutions. References Ahmad et al., 2022 – Effects of PGPR on drought stress mitigation​(Plant_Growth_Promoting_…). Singh et al., 2023 – Mechanisms of PGPR in sustainable agriculture​(Enhancing_plant_growth_…). Bano et al., 2022 – Phytostimulants for growth and stress tolerance​(Phytostimulants_in_sust…). Dukare et al., 2022 – Microbial contributions to plant health​(Delineation_of_mechanis…). Saeed et al., 2021 – Comprehensive review of rhizobacteria functions​(Rhizosphere_Bacteria_in…). Yang et al., – Rhizobacteria in abiotic stress resilience​(Rhizosphere_bacteria_he…). Auxins-Interkingdom Signaling Molecules Written By Aqsa Tariq and Ambreen Ahmed

Pseudomonas putida , a highly versatile, non-pathogenic bacterium, is a valuable organism in the fields of industrial biotechnology, environmental remediation, waste management, and agriculture. Known for its metabolic diversity, environmental robustness, and adaptability, P. putida  has been extensively studied and developed for use in various biotechnological applications, from pollutant degradation to plant growth promotion and the production of industrially valuable compounds. Growing modes of application of Pseudomonas putida Agricultural Biotechnology Biocontrol and Plant Growth Promotion Pseudomonas putida  plays a crucial role in promoting plant health and defending against soil-borne pathogens. It acts as a plant growth-promoting rhizobacterium (PGPR), enhancing plant growth by producing siderophores, which help in iron acquisition, and phytohormones that stimulate root development. By competing with harmful pathogens in the rhizosphere, P. putida  reduces the need for chemical fertilizers and pesticides, offering a more sustainable approach to agriculture. Its natural ability to thrive in diverse environments and support plant growth under various conditions makes it a valuable tool in sustainable agriculture, especially for crops under nutrient stress. Recent advances in the genetic modification of P. putida  have made it even more effective as a biocontrol agent. Strains like P. putida  BIRD-1 and UW4 have been engineered to provide enhanced resistance to abiotic stresses, such as salinity and heavy metal toxicity. These developments are helping to expand the use of P. putida  as a biofertilizer and biopesticide in modern agricultural practices. Find out more about beneficial bacteria strains for agriculture here Waste Management and Pollution Control Wastewater Treatment In the context of industrial wastewater treatment, particularly from industries such as oil processing and agriculture, Pseudomonas putida  is highly effective at breaking down phenolic compounds and other persistent organic pollutants. These pollutants are toxic and resistant to degradation, making traditional wastewater treatment methods insufficient. P. putida  offers a sustainable solution by metabolizing these harmful compounds, reducing the chemical oxygen demand (COD) and allowing treated wastewater to be safely released into the environment. Petroleum Hydrocarbon Degradation Pseudomonas putida  strains, such as P. putida  MHF 7109, have shown remarkable capabilities in degrading petroleum hydrocarbons. This makes them ideal for bioremediation efforts following oil spills and in treating contaminated industrial wastewater. The bacteria utilize hydrocarbons as a carbon source, producing enzymes like oxygenases and dehydrogenases to catalyze the degradation process. These properties enable P. putida  to play a key role in managing oil spill contamination and mitigating long-term environmental damage caused by industrial pollutants. Find more environmental bacterial like Pseudomonas putida   products from IndoGulf BioAg here Industrial Biotechnology Production of L-Citrulline L-citrulline is an amino acid with therapeutic applications in treating cardiovascular diseases, muscle fatigue. Pseudomonas putida  cells, when immobilised, have demonstrated a highly efficient means of producing L-citrulline in industrial settings. Immobilisation enhances enzyme stability and operational longevity, reducing production costs and increasing yield. This process is particularly valuable in the pharmaceutical industry, where the demand for high-quality L-citrulline is growing. Production of D-Glucosaminic Acid Pseudomonas putida  GNA5 has been optimised for the production of D-glucosaminic acid, a compound with applications in food, agriculture, and cancer therapy. The use of microbial fermentation to produce this compound is a more sustainable alternative to traditional chemical synthesis. By harnessing P. putida ’s natural metabolic pathways, industries can produce D-glucosaminic acid more efficiently and with a lower environmental impact. Synthetic Biology and Metabolic Engineering The rise of synthetic biology has propelled Pseudomonas putida  to the forefront of industrial biotechnology. Strain KT2440, in particular, has become a model organism for the development of metabolic engineering platforms due to its non-pathogenic nature and robust genetic architecture. By engineering this strain, researchers have optimized P. putida  for the production of bulk chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and biopolymers such as polyhydroxyalkanoates Timeline of Pseudomonas putida research Environmental Biotechnology Biodegradation of Phenolic Compounds Phenolic compounds, common pollutants in wastewater from olive oil mills and other industries, are difficult to degrade through traditional aerobic systems. Pseudomonas putida  offers an effective solution by metabolising these compounds and reducing COD by up to 93%. This ability makes P. putida  a valuable agent in environmental remediation, particularly in the treatment of wastewater streams rich in toxic organic compounds. Biodegradation of Naphthalene Naphthalene , a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), is a common environmental pollutant from industrial activities such as fossil fuel combustion. Pseudomonas putida  G7 is highly efficient at degrading naphthalene, playing a critical role in soil bioremediation efforts. The bacterium's ability to metabolize naphthalene into less harmful byproducts offers a sustainable approach to cleaning up contaminated environments. Cutting-Edge Developments In recent years, research into Pseudomonas putida  has advanced significantly, particularly in its application as a microbial chassis for industrial biocatalysis. The bacterium’s natural tolerance to oxidative stress and toxic chemicals makes it an ideal candidate for bioeconomy applications, such as converting renewable feedstocks into value-added chemicals​. Significant strides have been made in genetic engineering, enabling the production of biosynthetic drugs, biodegradable plastics, and even bio-based polymers like nylon-66. These innovations are expected to contribute to a greener and more sustainable industrial landscape​. The development of novel tools for genomic manipulation, such as CRISPR/Cas9, has further streamlined the engineering of P. putida , making it a powerful platform for synthetic biology applications. Pseudomonas putida - conclusion Pseudomonas putida  has established itself as a versatile and essential tool in the fields of industrial and environmental biotechnology. From bioremediation and waste management to the production of valuable compounds, this bacterium's metabolic flexibility and environmental robustness offer immense potential for addressing modern biotechnological challenges. With continued advancements in synthetic biology and metabolic engineering, P. putida  is poised to play an even greater role in creating sustainable solutions for industries and the environment. To inquire more information on Pseudomonas putida or place your order click here References Weimer, A., Kohlstedt, M., Volke, D.C., Nikel, P.I., & Wittmann, C. (2020).  "Industrial biotechnology of Pseudomonas putida : Advances and prospects." Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology . Volke, D.C., Calero, P., & Nikel, P.I. (2020).  "Pseudomonas putida: Trends in microbiology." Elsevier Ltd . Belda, E., Nikel, P.I., & de Lorenzo, V. (2016).  "Revisited genome of Pseudomonas putida  KT2440: Its value as a robust metabolic chassis." Environmental Microbiology . Salvachúa, D., et al. (2020).  "Production of bioplastics from lignin-derived aromatics by Pseudomonas putida ." Microbial Biotechnology . Poblete-Castro, I., et al. (2020).  "Polyhydroxyalkanoates from renewable feedstocks using Pseudomonas putida ." Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology .

Nitrogen is an essential nutrient for plant growth, yet atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) is unusable by most plants. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria  convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia (NH₃), a bioavailable form of nitrogen that plants can assimilate. These bacteria significantly enhance soil fertility, reduce dependency on synthetic fertilizers, and play a vital role in sustainable agricultural practices. Additionally, non-biological methods like the Haber-Bosch process  also contribute to nitrogen availability in agriculture, though they come with environmental costs. This guide explores both biological and industrial nitrogen fixation mechanisms, their historical context, and modern agricultural applications. Historical Overview of Nitrogen Fixation Early Discoveries and Scientific Advancements Martinus Beijerinck (1901)  was among the first to isolate nitrogen-fixing bacteria and reveal their symbiotic relationship with leguminous plants. His research demonstrated how bacteria like Rhizobium  form root nodules in legumes, facilitating the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia, which the plants then utilize for growth. J.R. Postgate (1982)  expanded this knowledge by elucidating the role of the nitrogenase enzyme  in bacteria, which is responsible for reducing atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia. His work laid the foundation for the practical application of nitrogen-fixing bacteria in modern agriculture. The Haber-Bosch Process and Its Implications The development of the Haber-Bosch process  in the early 20th century allowed for the mass production of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers. This industrial process involves combining nitrogen from the air with hydrogen (derived from natural gas) under high pressure and temperature to produce ammonia (NH₃). While it revolutionized global agriculture by enabling large-scale food production, it also introduced significant environmental and sustainability challenges . The synthetic nitrogen fertilizers produced by the Haber-Bosch process shifted attention away from biological nitrogen fixation for much of the 20th century. However, concerns over climate change, soil degradation, and pollution have renewed interest in nitrogen-fixing bacteria as a more sustainable alternative to synthetic fertilizers. Biological Nitrogen Fixation (BNF) Mechanisms Biological nitrogen fixation  occurs when specialized bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) into ammonia through the action of nitrogenase. These bacteria can either live symbiotically  with plants, forming root nodules (as in legumes), or exist free-living  in the soil or water. Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation : Bacteria like Rhizobium  and Bradyrhizobium  form nodules on the roots of legumes. Inside these nodules, nitrogenase reduces nitrogen gas (N₂) to ammonia (NH₃), which the plant absorbs for growth. Free-living Nitrogen Fixation : Bacteria such as Azotobacter  and Beijerinckia  fix nitrogen without a plant host. These bacteria enrich the soil with nitrogen, benefiting nearby crops. Types of Nitrogen fixation with bacteria root plant symbiosis Modern Advances in Nitrogen Fixation Extending Symbiosis to Non-Leguminous Crops One of the most exciting recent developments in nitrogen fixation research is the discovery of bacteria such as Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus  that can establish symbiotic relationships with non-leguminous plants like cereals. These bacteria have been shown to colonize the roots of crops such as maize, rice, and wheat, potentially reducing the need for synthetic nitrogen fertilizers in these staple crops. The ability to extend biological nitrogen fixation beyond legumes represents a major breakthrough for sustainable agriculture. Rhizobium, nitrogen fixing bacteria in a symbiotic connection with plant roots The Role of Biosolids in Enhancing Nitrogen Fixation Another modern application involves the use of municipal biosolids  as soil amendments. These biosolids can stimulate microbial activity in the soil, including nitrogen-fixing bacteria. For example, studies in Ontario have demonstrated that biosolids can increase nitrogen fixation activity, though there are concerns about contaminants such as heavy metals and pharmaceuticals. The long-term effects of biosolid applications on soil health and microbial communities require further study. The Unsustainability of the Haber-Bosch Process While the Haber-Bosch process  is crucial for modern agriculture, it poses several environmental challenges, making it unsustainable in its current form: Energy Intensity : The process is highly energy-intensive, requiring vast amounts of natural gas (methane) for hydrogen production. This makes it responsible for around 2% of global CO₂ emissions , contributing to climate change. Greenhouse Gas Emissions : The use of ammonia-based fertilizers, a product of the Haber-Bosch process, leads to the release of nitrous oxide (N₂O) , a potent greenhouse gas with a global warming potential approximately 300 times that of CO₂. N₂O also contributes to the depletion of the ozone layer. Soil and Water Pollution : Excessive use of synthetic fertilizers causes eutrophication  of water bodies, leading to harmful algal blooms and dead zones. It also contributes to the contamination of groundwater with nitrates, posing health risks to humans and ecosystems. Resource Depletion : The reliance on natural gas as the hydrogen source ties ammonia production to fossil fuel reserves, creating long-term sustainability issues, especially as global natural gas supplies dwindle. Alteration of the Nitrogen Cycle : Human-driven nitrogen fixation via the Haber-Bosch process has dramatically altered the global nitrogen cycle, resulting in imbalances that affect both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. This has led to soil degradation and reduced biodiversity in many agricultural regions. Illustration on nodule formation in plant roots, where nitrogen fixation happens Key Species of Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria and Their Roles Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are essential for natural and agricultural ecosystems, providing a sustainable alternative to synthetic fertilizers. Here are some key species and their agricultural applications, IndoGulf BioAg produces all of the mentioned strains: Rhizobium spp.  – Symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria associated with legumes like peas, beans, and soybeans. Bradyrhizobium elkanii   – Specializes in fixing nitrogen for leguminous crops, enhancing their growth and yields. Azospirillum brasilense  – Colonizes roots of cereals and grasses, promoting nitrogen availability and root development. Azotobacter spp.  – Free-living nitrogen fixers that thrive in soil, improving nitrogen availability for various crops and enhancing soil health. Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus  – Symbiotic with non-leguminous crops like sugarcane, fixing nitrogen while also producing plant growth-promoting substances. Herbaspirillum frisingense  – Found in maize and sugarcane, improving nitrogen fixation and plant growth. Beijerinckia indica  – Free-living nitrogen fixer, contributing to the nitrogen cycle in soil ecosystems. Sinorhizobium meliloti  – Symbiotic nitrogen fixer for legumes like alfalfa, essential for forage crops in agriculture. Conclusion The study and application of nitrogen fixation, both biological and industrial, are critical for sustainable agriculture. Biological nitrogen fixation offers a natural method for replenishing nitrogen in soils, reducing the need for energy-intensive and environmentally harmful synthetic fertilizers. By harnessing nitrogen-fixing bacteria, alongside improving the sustainability of industrial processes like the Haber-Bosch process, modern agriculture can move towards a more sustainable future. The key challenge lies in balancing the benefits of nitrogen fixation technologies with the need to reduce their environmental impacts. You can find nitrogen-fixing bacteria that we offer and more information here References: Beijerinck, M. W. (1901). "Über die Assimilation des freien Stickstoffs durch Bakterien." Postgate, J. R. (1982). The Fundamentals of Nitrogen Fixation . Cambridge University Press. Smil, V. (2001). Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production . MIT Press. Erisman, J. W., et al. (2011). "Reactive nitrogen in the environment and its effect on climate change." Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. , 3(5), 281-290. Souza, E. M., et al. (2010). "Extending nitrogen fixation to cereals: Recent advances." Braz. J. Microbiol. , 41(3), 621-631. Malandra, L., et al. (2017). "Effects of biosolid amendments on soil microbial communities." J. Environ. Qual. , 46(4), 1002-1010. Sutton, M. A., et al. (2011). "Too much of a good thing." Nature , 472, 159-161. Galloway, J. N., et al. (2008). "Transformation of the nitrogen cycle." Science , 320(5878), 889-892. Lindström, K., & Mousavi, S. A. (2018). "Effectiveness of nitrogen-fixing rhizobia on legumes." Microbiol. Spectrum , 6(1). Rodrigues, E. P., et al. (2020). "Nitrogen-fixing bacteria and their role in sustainable agriculture." Curr. Microbiol. , 77(5), 1095-1102. Pankievicz, V.C.S., Irving, T.B., Maia, L.G.S. et al. Are we there yet? The long walk towards the development of efficient symbiotic associations between nitrogen-fixing bacteria and non-leguminous crops. BMC Biol 17 , 99 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12915-019-0710-0

As agricultural practices evolve, farmers and gardeners are increasingly turning to sustainable solutions to boost crop yields and improve soil health. Among these solutions is the use of beneficial microbes like Bacillus coagulans , a spore-forming bacterium with remarkable potential for enhancing plant growth. This article explores the various uses, benefits, and important considerations when incorporating Bacillus coagulans  into plant cultivation. What is Bacillus Coagulans? Bacillus coagulans  is a lactic acid bacterium, well known for its probiotic benefits in humans and animals. However, its utility extends beyond probiotics, as recent research has highlighted its role in agriculture, particularly for improving plant health and soil quality. This resilient, spore-forming bacterium can survive extreme conditions and remains dormant until conditions are favorable for growth. Key Uses of Bacillus Coagulans in Agriculture Soil Health Enhancement : Bacillus coagulans  aids in improving soil structure by breaking down organic matter, releasing nutrients that plants can absorb. This activity also helps balance soil pH and enhances water retention, which is critical for maintaining soil fertility. Promoting Plant Growth : By producing phytohormones like indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), Bacillus coagulans  promotes root development, leading to stronger root systems and healthier plant growth. Enhanced root systems enable plants to access more water and nutrients. Disease Suppression : This bacterium helps suppress harmful soil pathogens by outcompeting them for resources. By reducing the population of disease-causing microbes, Bacillus coagulans  lowers the risk of plant diseases. Bioremediation : Bacillus coagulans  plays a role in breaking down harmful substances such as pesticides and heavy metals in the soil. This bioremediation process makes contaminated soils safer for plant growth and reduces environmental pollution. Enhanced Phosphorus Uptake : As shown in studies, Bacillus coagulans  can mobilize poorly soluble phosphates in the soil, making phosphorus more available to plants​. Phosphorus is essential for photosynthesis and energy transfer, making its availability crucial for optimal plant health. Benefits of Bacillus Coagulans for Plants Increased Crop Yields : By enhancing nutrient uptake and promoting healthy root growth, Bacillus coagulans  can significantly increase crop yields. Studies have shown that treated plants often exhibit improved biomass, higher seed yield, and overall better productivity​. Improved Stress Tolerance : Plants treated with Bacillus coagulans  demonstrate increased resistance to environmental stressors, including drought, salinity, and extreme temperatures. This bacterium helps plants maintain their metabolic functions even under adverse conditions. Reduced Need for Chemical Inputs : Using Bacillus coagulans  can reduce reliance on chemical fertilizers and pesticides, leading to more cost-effective and eco-friendly farming practices. Sustainability in Agriculture : By improving soil health and reducing the use of synthetic chemicals, Bacillus coagulans  contributes to sustainable farming practices, which are essential for long-term agricultural success and environmental preservation. Conclusion Bacillus coagulans  represents a promising advancement in sustainable agriculture, offering numerous benefits for plant growth, soil health, and crop yields. When incorporated thoughtfully, Bacillus coagulans  can help farmers and gardeners achieve healthier crops, contribute to sustainable farming practices, and ensure the long-term health of the soil. By adopting Bacillus coagulans  as part of your agricultural strategy, you are taking a step toward more sustainable and productive farming, promoting better crop health, and contributing to environmental conservation for future generations. Reference: Efficiency of Bacillus coagulans as P biofertilizer to mobilize native soil organic and poorly soluble phosphates and increase crop yield Brijesh Kumar Yadav a & Jagdish Chandra Tarafdar a a Department of Soil Science, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur, India http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03650340.2011.575064 .

As agriculture shifts toward more sustainable and eco-friendly practices, Azospirillum brasilense has gained recognition for its role in promoting plant growth , enhancing nutrient uptake, and improving stress resilience. This plant growth-promoting bacterium is particularly beneficial for cereal crops such as wheat, maize, and rice, where it supports root development and optimizes nutrient efficiency. Its application is helping to drive advancements in modern agriculture, contributing to increased crop productivity and sustainability. What is Azospirillum brasilense? Azospirillum brasilense is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped, highly motile bacterium  known for its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, enhance root architecture, and improve soil fertility. Found in a variety of soil conditions, it establishes a beneficial relationship with plants by colonizing their root system and stimulating growth through multiple mechanisms. Mechanisms of Action 1. Biological Nitrogen Fixation Azospirillum brasilense converts atmospheric nitrogen into a bioavailable form, reducing dependency on synthetic nitrogen fertilizers. This process is crucial for crops grown in nitrogen-deficient soils. 2. Phytohormone Production This bacterium produces auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins, which: Stimulate root elongation and lateral root formation. Enhance root hair development, increasing water and nutrient absorption. 3. Phosphorus Solubilization By solubilizing insoluble phosphorus compounds, Azospirillum brasilense  makes phosphorus more accessible to plants, leading to improved nutrient uptake. 4. Abiotic Stress Mitigation Azospirillum brasilense enhances plant resilience against drought and salinity through induced systemic tolerance (IST), ensuring better survival under extreme environmental conditions. Benefits of Azospirillum brasilense Enhanced Root Development:  Stronger root systems improve water and nutrient absorption, leading to healthier crops. Increased Nutrient Uptake:  Fixes nitrogen and solubilizes phosphorus, reducing reliance on chemical fertilizers. Higher Crop Yields:  Studies indicate up to 29% increased grain production  in maize when inoculated with Azospirillum brasilense  [(Ferreira et al., 2013)]. Stress Resistance:  Regulates gene expression to improve plant tolerance to drought and salinity. Eco-Friendly Agriculture:  Reduces chemical inputs, contributing to a sustainable and cost-effective  farming system. Application Methods 1. Seed Coating Applying Azospirillum brasilense  to seeds ensures early root colonization and efficient nutrient uptake. Recommended Dose:  10g per kg of seeds. Application Method:  Mix the inoculant with water and coat seeds before sowing. 2. Soil Application Incorporating the bacterium into soil improves microbial diversity and nutrient availability. Dosage:  3–5kg per acre. Best Practice:  Combine with compost or organic manure. 3. Drip Irrigation Adding Azospirillum brasilense to irrigation water ensures uniform field distribution. Dosage:  3kg per acre. Application:  Introduce into irrigation system periodically. Scientific Evidence & Research Several studies validate the effectiveness of Azospirillum brasilense in crop production: Okon & Itzigsohn (1995) :  Found improved root development and nutrient uptake, enhancing crop yield across multiple soil conditions. Lin et al. (1983):  Documented increased mineral uptake and biomass production in maize and sorghum. Ferreira et al. (2013) :  Reported up to 29% grain yield increase  in maize when inoculated with Azospirillum brasilense combined with nutrient applications. da Silva Oliveira et al. (2023) & Marques et al. (2020) :  Observed enhanced growth and nutrient efficiency in crops such as lettuce and maize, further supporting its role in sustainable agriculture. Practical Implementation & Case Studies Case Study: Brazilian Cerrado Soil A research study found that combining Azospirillum brasilense with nitrogen fertilizers increased maize grain yield by 29% , demonstrating its synergy with traditional farming techniques. Case Study: Citronella Cultivation Azospirillum brasilense inoculation enhanced nitrogen fixation and chlorophyll content, resulting in higher oil yields  in Cymbopogon plants. Safety and Environmental Impact Azospirillum brasilense is safe for agricultural use  with no known adverse effects on human health or the environment. It is suitable for both organic and conventional farming systems , making it an adaptable and sustainable solution. Azospirillum brasilense and Bradyrhizobium japonicum synergistic relationship enhances biomass production The combination of Azospirillum brasilense  and Bradyrhizobium japonicum  results in higher nitrogen fixation efficiency  and improved root system development . Bradyrhizobium japonicum  establishes root nodules  for nitrogen fixation, while Azospirillum brasilense  enhances root mass and nutrient absorption , creating a synergistic effect  that leads to stronger, healthier plants . Application Methods for Coinoculation Inoculation in the planting furrow  – Direct application in the furrow for immediate root interaction. Seed treatment  – Coating seeds with a mix of both bacteria before planting to ensure early colonization. Post-emergence application  – Applying the solution directly to the soil after plants have emerged. Key Benefits in Soybean Cultivation Greater Nitrogen Fixation:  Coinoculation enhances biological nitrogen fixation (BNF), meeting the crop’s nitrogen demand naturally. Stronger Root Development:   Improved root biomass  increases water and nutrient uptake, leading to higher resistance to stress conditions . Higher Tolerance to Stress:  Plants exhibit greater resilience against drought and nutrient-deficient soils . Optimized Soil Fertility:  The dual inoculation process contributes to a more sustainable agricultural system , reducing the need for synthetic nitrogen fertilizers. Integration into a Soybean Management Program Can be seamlessly integrated with existing agricultural practices  without disrupting current management programs. Rotation with cover crops and efficient irrigation  enhances the effectiveness of microbial inoculants. A well-developed root system from coinoculation ensures optimal moisture and nutrient retention , promoting long-term soil health. The combination of Azospirillum brasilense and Bradyrhizobium japonicum  is revolutionizing soybean agriculture  by maximizing nitrogen fixation, enhancing root growth, and increasing stress tolerance . This approach offers a cost-effective, eco-friendly alternative  to chemical fertilizers while boosting crop productivity . Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) 1. What crops benefit most from Azospirillum brasilense? It is highly effective for cereals (wheat, rice, maize), legumes, oilseeds, vegetables, and medicinal herbs. 2. Can it be used with chemical fertilizers? Yes, Azospirillum brasilense works well with organic and mineral fertilizers, maximizing nutrient absorption. 3. Does it work in all soil types? Yes, though it performs best in well-aerated soils with adequate organic matter. 4. Is Azospirillum brasilense compatible with other microbial inoculants? Yes, it can be used alongside other beneficial microbes such as mycorrhizal fungi and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) . Future Perspectives and Innovations 1. Agricultural Innovations Enhanced formulations for drought-tolerant and high-salinity conditions. Integration with precision agriculture for targeted application. 2. Environmental Advancements Optimized nitrogen fixation mechanisms for higher efficiency in low-nitrogen soils . Reduced dependence on synthetic fertilizers for a greener agricultural model. 3. Biotechnological Developments Improved compatibility with other microbial inoculants for broader applications. Genetic advancements to enhance stress resilience in crops. Conclusion Azospirillum brasilense is a powerful plant-growth-promoting rhizobacterium that enhances crop productivity, improves nutrient efficiency, and increases stress resistance, making it a sustainable and cost-effective solution for modern agriculture. By colonizing plant roots, it stimulates growth through phytohormone production, enhances nitrogen fixation, and improves phosphorus solubilization, reducing the need for synthetic fertilizers while boosting yields. Its ability to strengthen plant resilience against drought, salinity, and temperature fluctuations makes it invaluable in combating climate-related agricultural challenges. Additionally, by reducing chemical dependency, Azospirillum brasilense promotes soil health, minimizes environmental impact, and lowers input costs for farmers. As a result, integrating this beneficial bacterium into cultivation practices offers an eco-friendly approach to achieving higher yields and long-term agricultural sustainability. Visit our product page for more information and quotes on Azospirillum brasilense .